Motion controllers for learners to manipulate and interact with 3D objects for mental rotation training

Mental rotation is an important spatial processing ability and an important element in intelligence tests. However, the majority of past attempts at training mental rotation have used paper-and-pencil tests or digital images. This study proposes an innovative mental rotation training approach using magnetic motion controllers to allow learners to manipulate and interact with three-dimensional (3D) objects. Stereovision allows learners to perceive the spatial geometric form of a 3D object. This approach allows learners to perceive 3D objects in space through stereovision and make mental rotation visible from each intrinsic and invisible mental rotation step using motion-interaction methods. This study examines the effects of user training performance and perceptions. The results indicate that the proposed approach can improve user mental rotation ability effectively. Learners expressed high degrees of concentration toward the mechanism that included direct control and immediate feedback. The results also suggest that female testers perceive greater degrees of playfulness toward the mechanism and improve more through training than male testers. Introduction Mental rotation belongs to the category of spatial cognition and refers to the ability to mentally rotate objects in twoor three-dimensional space. This ability significantly impacts learning activities across multiple disciplines, including geometry, physics, mirror image refraction and reflection, and chemical structures. People with superior mental rotation abilities grasp these concepts more rapidly than others (Moe & Pazzaglia, 2006). This ability is therefore indispensable for mathematicians, chemists, engineers and artists. The current method of judging the strength of a person’s mental rotation ability is based on the degree of accuracy and time spent on a mental rotation test. Early mental rotation training was performed primarily through continual practice on paper tests or engaging in educational activities involving puzzles. Later, the popularization of personal computers allowed for the use of computer games, such as Tetris, to improve mental rotation abilities. In recent years, with British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 45 No 4 2014 666–675 doi:10.1111/bjet.12059 © 2013 British Educational Research Association developments in relevant technology, novel technologies led to more realistic, concrete and interesting three-dimensional (3D) mental rotation training activities, such as the use of 3D images and interactive technologies, to provide situational or authentic learning. Constructed 3D virtual learning environments can improve learning motivation through the creation of learning environments and activities that are closer to knowledge and situations encountered in daily life. Moreover, students can become active participants in learning processes, and their motivations may shift from extrinsic to intrinsic rewards (Bruner, 1961). This study uses an innovative mental rotation training mechanism that integrates motion control and 3D stereovision technology, allowing learners to perceive 3D geometric shapes of objects through stereovision. It also allows visibility of mental rotation from each intrinsic and invisible mental rotation step using motion-interaction methods. This system then provides real-time rotation results through stereovision to the user with visual cues for necessary adjustments for the next step of space rotation. This process is continually repeated to complete training. Related work The first part of this section introduces current mental rotation training approaches. The second part describes how current training systems increasingly focus on providing playfulness for the learners. When learners experience more playfulness, they have more positive attitudes, consequently involving themselves more deeply in the task. This study focuses on the effects of training performance along with the user’s perception of playfulness of the system. Practitioner Notes What is already known about this topic • The majority of past attempts at training mental rotation have used paper–and-pencil tests or digital images. • Women’s mental rotation ability might not show as well as men on paper-and-pencil tests. What this paper adds • This study uses an innovative mental rotation training mechanism that integrates motion control and three-dimensional (3D) stereovision technology, allowing learners to perceive 3D geometric shapes of objects through stereovision. It also allows visibility of mental rotation from each intrinsic and invisible mental rotation step using motioninteraction methods. This system then provides real-time rotation results through stereovision to the user with visual cues for necessary adjustments for the next step of space rotation. • Women showed a greater degree of improvement in learning performance and expressed significantly higher perceived playfulness than men when using the mental training system with motion control and stereovision. Implications for practice and/or policy • This study tries to use motion controllers and 3D stereovision technology for mental rotation training. This approach can put into practice to increase students’ mental rotation ability. Students can perceive more playfulness and pay more attention while operating the 3D objects through motion controllers. • This research could be a good reference for other researchers while adopting motion controllers or 3D stereovision technology for learning. Motion controllers for mental rotation training 667 © 2013 British Educational Research Association Mental rotation training approaches In traditional mental rotation training, participants complete a seven-piece puzzle or play Tetris. Cooper (1976) proposed using some two-dimensional (2D) images for mental rotation training, including incongruent representations and diverse rotation angles. Results showed that participants who received mental rotation training showed a significant improvement in mental rotation abilities. De Lisi and Wolford (2002) allowed participants to undergo training by playing Tetris. After training, the participants exhibited improved performance on mental rotation tests. Participants who obtained a high score in Tetris also obtained higher scores on the mental rotation test. Rafi, Samsudin and Ismail (2006) had participants use engineering drawing software as a mental rotation training tool; the results indicated that interactions between the user and the training tools resulted in enhanced performance on a mental rotation task. Rafi and Samsudin (2009) used computers as tools for participants to decide how to rotate objects to match the targets. This approach provides participants with opportunities to experiment with methods and use reflective thinking. In a constructivist interpretation system (Dalgarno, 2001), participants were required to compare two pictures of 3D objects to determine how to rotate them. Results indicated that the 3D environment was more appreciative and better facilitated the imagination of the participants while comparing with the 2D setting. Although many approaches have been proposed, few training environments support the immersion to allow participants to control 3D objects directly through stereo observation. Immersive environment Previously, learners have typically used a keyboard and mouse to interact with a computer. During the learning process, they received immediate and useful feedback that promoted interest and assisted in concentration, thereby improving learning outcomes. Recent technological developments such as 3D virtual environments and somatosensory interfaces allow users to interact intuitively with highly realistic simulation environments. Thus, they can focus on learning objectives and training for specific tasks in realistic situations, without the need to learn how to navigate a complex user interface. Furthermore, intuitive interfaces provide a greater level of control than that offered by a keyboard and mouse. Examples of such systems include flight simulation and surgical training systems that employ immersive virtual environments that users can operate intuitively. Learning with these technologies is potentially more convenient and efficient. The potential for these systems has been enhanced by the development of interfaces such as Nintendo Wii, Sony PS Move and Microsoft Kinect (for Xbox or PC), which allow people to experience gesture-based computing in their households. Sophisticated hand-held computing systems are also being developed. Furthermore, the price of hardware and software required to implement the discussed virtual technologies has become economically feasible for classroom environments; thus, the application of visual 3D stereo images with intuitive control has become potentially viable. To create an immersive environment, Cruz-Neira, Sandin and DeFanti (1993) proposed a roomsized virtual reality (VR) system named the CAVE. They employed high-resolution stereoscopic projection and 3D computer graphics to develop a sense of presence in a virtual environment. Their system integrated a motion capture interface to record the user position in real time. The CAVE was used to build narrative-based, immersive, constructionist/collaborative environments for children, which encouraged exploration and experiential learning (Roussos et al, 1997). Users constructed and cultivated simple virtual ecosystems that incorporated complex models with numerous variables and behaviors that children typically have difficulty visualizing. This shows that immersive environments have been applied effectively to reduce complex models to simpler qualitative representations for learning. Chen (2006) employed 3D VR technology to create an immersive environment for training novice driver training. Their study presented 3D representations and dynamics of road scenarios that significantly reduced learners’ needs to use their 668 British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 45 No 4 2014 © 2013 British Educational Research Association existing spatial processing schemas and showed that learners with VR experience achieved significantly higher gain scores for the VR-based test than those without similar experience. Currently, commercial companies employ stereoscopic 3D display systems that present users with highly detailed and realistic environments. Furthermore, tracking systems have also been incorporated so users can move 3D images and interact with them. However, the design and development of practical applications for specific learning objectives requires intensive interdisciplinary collaboration to realize the potential of gesture-based computing in immersive environments. Such research would provide an effective analysis to assist in identifying specific causalities that would enhance the design of the discussed technologies.